Learning Objects in Instructional System Design

What are Learning Objects?

According to Barritt (2002), there are many ways to define the size and function of a "Learning object" (LO). An LO can be as large as a course or as small as a specific piece of any content, for example, a definition. In fact, the size and shape of an object is open to the organization to define, as there is no industry or educational standard at this time.

However, for Barrit, an LO is based on a single learning or performance objective that is presented through content, practice, and assessment items. Content, practice items and assessment items are built out of text and media elements. The LOs can be stand alone instructional materials or they can be a series of LOs. These LOs, or building blocks of instruction may function like any other instructional object in that they are available for reuse by the authors or by the instructors and can be delivered to the performers just-in-time.

Here are some articles on LOs and RLOs. I believe that these are used mostly in the business world and higher education training centers.


Hannafin, M. J., Hill, J. R., McCarthy, J. E. (2000). "Designing resource-based learning and performance support systems," in D. A. Wiley, ed., The Instructional Use of Learning Objects. Retrieved August 14, 2006, from:
http://reusability.org/read/chapters/hannafin.doc

Merrill, M. David. (2000) "Components of Instruction: Toward a Theoretical Tool for Instructional Design." Instructional Science. Retrieved August 10, 2006 from:
http://www.id2.usu.edu/Papers/Components.PDF

Merrill, M. David & ID2 Research Team. (1996)."Instructional Transaction Theory: Instructional Design based on Knowledge Objects." Educational Technology, 36(3), 30-37. Retrieved August 5, 2006 from:
http://www.id2.usu.edu/Papers/FridgeKO.PDF

Merrill, M. David. (Undated). "A Knowledge Object and Mental Model Approach to a Physics Lesson." Educational Technology. Retrieved August 1, 2006 from:
http://www.id2.usu.edu/Papers/CatesRevision6.PDF

Merrill, M. David. (1998) "Knowledge Objects." CBT Solutions, March/April 1998. Retrieved July 10, 2006 from:
http://www.id2.usu.edu/Papers/KnowledgeObjects.PDF

Merrill, M. D. (2000). "Knowledge objects and mental models." In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved July 10, 2006, from: http://reusability.org/read/chapters/merrill.doc

Wiley, D. A. (2000). "Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy," in D. A. Wiley, ed., The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved July 18, 2006, from:
http://reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.doc

Wiley, D.A., ed. The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved July 15, 2006, from:
http://www.reusability.org/read/

Wiley, D.A. Learning Object Design and Sequencing Theory, June 2000. Retrieved July 14, 2006, from:
http://wiley.ed.usu.edu/docs/dissertation.pdf

Wiley, D.A. (2003) "Learning Objects: Difficulties and Opportunities." Retrieved July 10, 2006, from:
http://wiley.ed.usu.edu/docs/lo_do.pdf

Reusable Learning Objects (RLOs) in Instructional Design

Implications for Instructional design

Currently, I am researching Reusable Learning objects for my article. Looking at the faculty training experience and my internship, I have found that they are being used everywhere but at different levels of training. Following is a very general explanation and definition of RLOs.

Reusable learning objects (RLOs) are context independent, transportable and reusable pieces of instruction that are digitally managed and delivered. As such, they provide untold opportunities for easy access to tailored learning and are slowly being implemented in some larger corporations. Hodgins (2000)states that learning objects:

"represent a completely new conceptual model for the mass of content used in the context of learning. They are destined to forever change the shape and form of learning, and in so doing, it is anticipated that they will also usher in an unprecedented efficiency of learning content design, development, and delivery."

I have added all the references with a new post on LOs. The instructional objects are mostly called LOs or RLOs in computer science and business and the choice of a term refers to the way they are used in different instructional contexts.

A new model for the 21st Century

4C/ID Model

This is an instructional model by van Merriënboer (2002) and other researchers. The basic model appears to be based on Cognitive Load theory that Sweller and Van Merrienboer (1988) have researched before.

The 4C-ID model is characterized by four components:
(1) Learning Tasks, (2) Supportive Information,
(3) Procedural Information and (4) Part-Task Practice. The tasks are ordered by a task difficulty and each task offers at the beginning a lot of scaffolding (Vigotsky, 1930) which is reduced as the learner progresses.

According to Merrienboer et al., (2002), " the 4C/ID-model addresses at least three deficits in previous instructional design models.

First of all, the 4C/ID-model focuses on the integration and coordinated performance of task-specific constituent skills rather than on knowledge types, context or presentation-delivery media.

Secondly, in the paper, the model makes a critical distinction between supportive information and required just-in-time (JIT) information (the latter specifies the performance required, not only the type of knowledge required). And third, traditional models use either part-task or whole-task practice; the 4C/IDmodel recommends a mixture where part-task practice supports very complex, "whole-task" learning. "

Practical aspects of ID

SITUATED INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

I have been reflecting on the practical aspects of instructional design as it relates to real-world contexts and its implication on my particular internship. This online article by Brent Wilson on situated instructional design explains that implementation and design are ultimately inseparable. According to Wilson (1995), deciding upon a design solution and making decisions within that framework is a highly situated activity. The success of a given implementation will depend more on the local variables and context of where a designer is working than on the general variables contained in the ID model chosen to guide design. In this approach, all the stakeholder should be included in the design process. This process entails a great collaboration. In this article, the author also provides a general methodolgy for situated instructional design.

Read this article:
Wilson, B. G. (1995). Situated instructional design: Blurring the distinctions between theory and practice, design and implementation, curriculum and instruction.

Instructional Design Models

Search of an ID model for my EDIT 580 Internship:

For my internship and ID research, I am currently looking at different ID models and in particular Morrison, Ross and Kemp's (MRK) ID model for the contextual analysis for my internship. I am also looking at the Human Performance Technology (HPT) model.

Why? At first, the MRK model appeared to be suitable for a Technology center context and also appeared to be more flexible, in terms of its not being linear and rigid. But after working and doing a preliminary needs and context analysis for CSULA eLPS, it appears that I may have to refer to an HPT model more than any ID model. The more I analyze the technology center's project, the more it appears to be a non-instructional issue at this point, introducing Tegrity software with Tablet PC which deals with faculty members teaching with CMS/LMS and CSULA administration. At this point, I am also open to other ID models if I come across any that can somehow help me with the second phase of design.

I am also realizing that all these ID models are conceptual frameworks that may need some adjustments while working in real life and everyday contexts.

Books to read in ID

The role of the Instructional Designer

In chapter 13 of "Designing effective instruction", the role of designers in ID is explained by Morrison, Ross & Kemp (2004) . It clarified some of my concerns and helped me clear some of my confusion on the role of an instructional designer that I could be playing in CSULA eLPS. This chapter further explained how to work with subject matter experts (SME), how to effectively determine the time frame, nature of delivery and resources available during an ID process. With this established, the instructional designer could roughly assess his role in the entire process. It further elaborated on how it would vary in business environment, higher education and developing training for a third party. It also explained how to approach certain situations while working with different support personnel like graphic artists, media production specialists, scriptwriters and so on. I would recommend this chapter to my EDIT 580 group.

Morrison, GR, Ross, SM, & Kemp, JE (2004). Designing effective instruction (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons

Principles of Instructional Design by Robert Gagné, L.J. Briggs and W.W. Wager. 4th ed.

From this book, I have some understanding of Gagné's work in Instructional design.

As an instructional psychologist, Gagne's work has contributed greatly the field of instructional technology especially regarding the design of instruction. According to Gagné, the following steps should be clearly thought out when designing instruction. In his writings, he mentioned that there are five categories of learning. Such categories can be formed because each leads to a different class of human performance and each requires a different set of instructional conditions for effective learning (Gagné,1974).

The categories are:

1. Intellectual skills. These skills are the capabilities that make the human individual competent. They enable him to respond to conceptualizations of his environment.
2. Cognitive strategies. These skills are the ones that govern the individual capability to learn, think and remember.
3. Verbal information. Stored in our memory to recall when needed, such as names of months, days of week, letters, numeral.
4. Motor skills. The capability to learn: to ride a bike, drive a car, write, draw a straight line.
5. Attitudes. All of us possess attitudes of many sorts towards different things, persons and situations. These attitudes may affect our position toward those things.
These categories of learned capabilities are distinctive categories that also require different arrangements of conditions in order for the learning of each to occur.

Within these various types of learning there must be nine general instructional events:

1. Gaining attention. To ensure reception of coming instruction we give the learner a stimulus.
2. Tell the learners the learning objective. Tell the learner what they will be able to do because of the instruction.
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning. Ask for recall of existing relevant knowledge.
4. Presenting the stimulus. Display the content.
5. Providing learning guidance.
6. Eliciting performance. Ask the learner to respond, demonstrating learning
7. Providing feedback. Give informative feedback on the learner's performance.
8. Assessing performance. Require more learner performance, and give feedback, to reinforce learning.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts. Provide varied practice to generalize the capability

In his book, he also identifies to look for specific results in learning:

1. Identify the types of learning outcomes
2. Each outcome may have prerequisite knowledge or skills that must be identified.
3. Identify the internal conditions or processes the learner must have to achieve the outcomes.
4. Identify the external conditions or instruction needed to achieve the outcomes.
5. Specify the learning context.
6. Record the characteristics of the learners.
7. Select the media for instruction.
8. Plan to motive the learners.
9. The instruction is tested with learners in the form of formative evaluation.
10. After the instruction has been used, summative evaluation is used the judge the effectiveness of the instruction.

This book helped me in understanding instructional technology and design from Gagné perspective and research.

Still reading:

Here are some of the books that are important for Instructional Design and Technology and I am reading them now. I will be reviewing some parts of the Instructional design with these books and in the near future, I will be posting commentaries on the ID process in regards to my current EDIT 580 internship:

-Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of Their Current Status by Charles M. Reigeluth (Editor)
-The Systematic Design of Instruction by W. Dick and L. Carey 6th ed.

Postmodern Instructional Design

Ideas, Practices and Theories in Postmodernism relate to pluralistic approaches to Instructional design (ID). It also encourages eclecticism in the instructional design process,it makes you look for different views over single and monolithic approach in this process. It encourages multiple interpretations, multiple responses, pluralistic discourses and multiple options in ID.

-ID and Postmodernism
-The Postmodern Paradigm

Instructional Design References

Survey of Instructional Development Models

This article, "A taxonomy of ID models" helped me understand the underlying assumptions of each model, and how to appropriately apply them in real life situations. According to Gustafson's (1981, 1991) this process is done by forming a schema which contains three categories into which models can be placed. The placement of any model in one of the categories is based on the set of assumptions that its creator(s) has made, often implicitly, about the conditions under which both the development and delivery of instruction will occur. This taxonomy has three categories indicating whether the model is best applied for developing: individual classroom instruction; products for implementation by users other than the developers; or large and complex instructional systems directed at an organization's problems or goals.

I. Classroom Orientation ID Models
II. Product Orientation ID Models
III. System Orientation ID Models:

Taxonomy of ID models


Knowledge Management in ID

I am currently reading articles for my research in ID. This is the one that I have read and pertains to knowledge management in ID. Knowledge management systems (KMSs) are tools aimed at supporting knowledge management. KMSs evolved from information management tools that integrated many aspects of computer-supported collaborative work environments (CSCW) with information and document management systems.

Key characteristics of a KMS are support for: (1) communication among various users; (2) coordination of users' activities; (3) collaboration among user groups on the creation, modification and dissemination of artifacts and products; and, (4) control processes to ensure integrity and to track the progress of projects.

Recently, KM issues are being addressed by ID researchers. They include: (a) the granularity of learning objects suitable for promoting effective learning and reuse; (b) the modes and types of communication appropriate for different users and tasks; and, (c) adaptive systems to support instructional design and development.

-Knowledge Management in Instructional Design

ID websites

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN TECHNOLOGY

Here are some of the websites that are interesting in the field of Instructional design and Technology:
-Questia: The World's largest online library
-Instructional Design System
-Instructional Design and learning Theory
-IEEE